Determination of Spin Parameters of a Sports Ball

ABSTRACT

A method of determining spin parameters of a sports ball, such as spin axis and rotation velocity of a golf ball. The spin axis is determined solely from the trajectory of the flying ball, and the rotational velocity is determined from a frequency analysis of a signal provided by a radar, which signal comprises spectrum traces positioned equidistantly in frequency, which frequency distance relates to the spin velocity.

The present invention relates to the determination of spin parameters of a sports ball while in flight, and in particular to the determination of the spin axis and/or a rotational velocity of the sports ball.

Such parameters are highly interesting both for using and developing sports balls and other sports equipment, such as golf clubs, irons, rackets, bats or the like used for launching sports balls.

For golf balls, such determinations normally have been made by adding to the golf balls strips or patterns of a radar reflecting material. This, however, can only be made for test purposes in that this type of ball is highly standardized. Technologies of this type may be seen in U.S. Pat. No. 6,244,971 and US 2002/0107078.

The present invention aims at being able to perform these determinations without altering the sports balls.

In a first aspect, the invention relates to a method of estimating a spin axis of a sports ball while in flight, the method comprising:

-   -   1. determining at least part of a 3D-trajectory of the flying         sports ball,     -   2. estimating, from the trajectory, an acceleration, preferably         a total acceleration, of the sports ball at a predetermined         position along the trajectory,     -   3. estimating an acceleration of the sports ball caused by         gravity at the predetermined position,     -   4. estimating an acceleration of the sports ball caused by air         resistance/drag at the predetermined position, and     -   5. estimating the spin axis, at the predetermined position, on         the basis of the estimated accelerations.

In general, it may be argued that for a rotationally symmetric sports ball in flight, only three forces act: the gravity, the air resistance or drag and the so-called lift of the ball caused by any spin thereof. Thus, estimating the individual accelerations will bring about information facilitating the determination of the lift or the direction thereof caused by a rotation of the ball. Thus, the deviation from a trajectory positioned in a single, vertical plane in which the acceleration is caused by gravity and drag, may be caused by the spin. However, a lift and a spin may also act within this vertical plane.

It should be noted that knowledge is only required at a small area around the predetermined position in that only the overall acceleration thereof is to be determined. This may e.g. be determined from two points along the trajectory, where position and velocity is known.

Preferably, the determination of the spin axis is performed at a number of positions along the trajectory of the ball. Thus, preferably, at least steps 2-4 are preformed at each of a plurality of points in time. Then, the step 5 may be performed once on the basis of the accelerations determined at a plurality of points in time (such as from an average thereof) or may be determined for each of the points in time in order to determine a time variation of the spin axis.

Also, it is clear that the trajectory information may be derived in any suitable manner, such as the use of a RADAR, 3D imaging equipment, or the like. Naturally, the trajectory may be represented as the coordinates of the ball at one or more points in time. The coordinate system may be chosen in any manner.

Preferably, step 5. comprises subtracting the accelerations estimated in steps 3. and 4. from that estimated in step 2, determining a residual acceleration, and estimating the spin axis on the basis of a direction of the residual acceleration. Thus, the spin axis may be determined using simple vector calculus.

In this situation, the spin axis of the ball will be perpendicular to the direction of the residual acceleration in that the spin of the ball will act to turn the direction of the ball.

Also, step 4 may comprise estimating a velocity of the ball at the predetermined position from the trajectory and estimating the acceleration on the basis of the estimated velocity or rather a deviation in velocity between two points on the trajectory.

Another aspect of the invention relates to a system for estimating a spin axis of a sports ball while in flight, the system comprising:

-   -   1. means for determining at least part of a 3D-trajectory of the         flying sports ball,     -   2. means for estimating, from the trajectory, an acceleration,         preferably a total acceleration, of the sports ball at a         predetermined position along the trajectory,     -   3. means for estimating an acceleration of the sports ball         caused by gravity at the predetermined position,     -   4. means for estimating an acceleration of the sports ball         caused by air resistance/drag at the predetermined position, and     -   5. means for estimating the spin axis, at the predetermined         position, on the basis of the estimated accelerations.

Again, the means 2-4 may be adapted to perform the estimations at each of a plurality of predetermined positions, and the means 5. are preferably adapted to subtract the accelerations estimated in steps 3. and 4. from that estimated in step 2, determine a residual acceleration, and estimate the spin axis on the basis of a direction of the residual acceleration, in order to e.g. facilitate an easy determination of the axis. When the accelerations have been estimated at a plurality of positions, the spin axis may be determined (means 5) once for all these positions or for each position.

Also, the means 4 may be adapted to estimate a velocity of the ball at the predetermined position from the trajectory and estimate the acceleration on the basis of the estimated velocity.

A third aspect of the invention relates to a method of estimating a rotational velocity or spin frequency of a rotating sports ball in flight, the method comprising:

-   -   1. a number of points in time during the flight, receiving         electromagnetic waves reflected from the rotating sports ball         and providing a corresponding signal,     -   2. performing a frequency analysis of the signal, and         identifying one, two or more discrete spectrum traces positioned         at least substantially equidistantly in frequency and being         continuous over time, and     -   3. estimating the velocity/frequency from a frequency distance         between the discrete spectrum traces.

In the present context, any type of electromagnetic wave may be used, such as visible radiation, infrared radiation, ultrasound, radio waves, etc.

In addition, any number of points in time may be used. It may be preferred to receive the radiation as long as a meaningful detection is possible or as long as the spectrum traces may be determined in the signal. Normally, the reception and subsequent signal analysis is performed at equidistant points in time.

In order to ensure that the distance between the spectrum traces is correctly determined, preferably more than 2 equidistant spectrum traces are identified.

Naturally, the frequency analysis may result in a spectrum of the signal. This, however, is not required in that only the equidistant spectrum traces are required.

In this context, a spectrum trace is a sequence of frequencies which is at least substantially continuous in time but which may vary over time. In the present context, a trace normally is a slowly decaying function, but any shape is in principle acceptable and determinable.

Preferably, step 1. comprises receiving the reflected electromagnetic waves using a receiver, and wherein step 2. comprises identifying, subsequent to the frequency analysis, a first frequency corresponding to a velocity of the ball in a direction toward or away from the receiver and wherein identification of the spectrum traces comprises identifying spectrum traces positioned symmetrically around the first frequency.

In this manner, another frequency is determined which may aid in ensuring that the equidistant spectrum lines are correctly determined. In addition, requiring also the symmetry around this frequency further adds to ensuring a stable determination.

In a preferred embodiment, step 2. comprises, for each point in time and sequentially in time:

-   -   performing the frequency analysis and an identification of         equidistant candidate frequencies for a point in time,     -   subsequently identifying those candidates which each has a         frequency deviating at the most a predetermined amount from a         frequency of a candidate of one or more previous points in time,     -   then identifying, as the frequency traces, traces of identified         candidates, and where step 3 comprises estimating the         velocity/frequency on the basis of the identified spectrum         traces.

This has the advantage that the determination may be made sequentially, such as in parallel with the receipt of the reflected radiation. Also, a noise cancellation is performed in that what might resemble valid equidistant spectrum lines in one measurement may not have any counterparts. In other, such as neighbouring measurement(s), whereby it may be deleted as a candidate.

In this context, the predetermined amount or uncertainty within which a candidate should be may be a fixed amount, a fixed percentage or a measure depending on e.g. an overall signal-to-noise ratio determined.

A fourth aspect of the invention relates to a system for estimating a rotational velocity or spin frequency of a rotating sports ball in flight, the system comprising:

-   -   1. a receiver adapted to, a number of points in time during the         flight, receive electromagnetic waves reflected from the         rotating sports ball and provide a corresponding signal,     -   2. means for performing a frequency analysis of the signal, and         identifying one, two or more discrete spectrum traces positioned         at least substantially equidistantly in frequency and being         continuous over time, and     -   3. means for estimating the velocity/frequency from a frequency         distance between the discrete spectrum traces.

Naturally, the comments relating to the third aspect again are relevant.

Thus, the means 2. may be adapted to identify, subsequent to the frequency analysis, a first frequency corresponding to a velocity of the ball in a direction toward or away from the receiver and to identify, as the spectrum traces, spectrum traces positioned symmetrically around the first frequency.

A preferred manner of determining the velocity/frequency is one, wherein the means 2. are adapted to, for each point in time and sequentially in time:

-   -   perform the frequency analysis and the identification of         equidistant candidate frequencies for a point in time,     -   subsequently identify those candidates which have a frequency         deviating at the most a predetermined amount from a frequency of         a candidate of one or more previous points in time,     -   then identify, as the frequency traces, traces of identified         candidates, and where the means 3 are adapted to estimate the         velocity/frequency on the basis of the identified spectrum         lines.

A fifth aspect relates to a method of estimating a spin, comprising a spin axis and a spin frequency, of a sports ball while in flight, the method comprising estimating the spin axis as in the first aspect of the invention and estimating the spin frequency according to the third aspect.

A sixth and final aspect of the invention relates to a system for estimating a spin, comprising a spin axis and a spin frequency, of a sports ball while in flight, the system comprising the system according to the second aspect of the invention, for determining the spin axis, and the system according to the fourth aspect for determining the spin frequency.

In the following, a preferred embodiment of the invention will be described with reference to the drawing, wherein:

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of a rotating ball and a Doppler radar,

FIG. 2 illustrates a spectrum having equidistant spectrum lines,

FIG. 3 illustrates the determination of equidistant spectrum lines,

FIG. 4 illustrates a measured 3D trajectory of a golf ball,

FIG. 5 illustrates the final spin frequency chart over time,

FIG. 6 illustrates a spin vector relating to the trajectory of FIG. 4,

FIG. 7 is a flow chart over the detection of spin frequency,

FIG. 8 illustrates the determination of the orientation of the spin vector, and

FIG. 9 is a flow chart of the determination of the orientation of the spin vector.

FIG. 10 is a flow chart of the determination of the orientation of the spin vector when it can be assumed that the spin axis lays in a known plane.

Using a Doppler radar to measure the spin frequency of sports balls has been known for years; see U.S. Pat. No. 6,244,971 and US 2002/0107078 A1. However, all these inventions are based on modifying the reflection off some area of the ball, typically by adding conducting material either under or on the cover of the ball. The present embodiment also uses a Doppler radar, but does not require any modifications to the ball in order to extract the spin frequency. This aspect increases the commercial value of the present invention significantly.

In the past, the orientation of the spin axis of a rotating ball has been measured by using cameras placed close to the launching area. These systems only provide the orientation of the spin axis in one point in space, right after launch. The present invention uses a 3 dimensional trajectory measuring equipment to measure the spin axis orientation during flight.

The present invention makes it possible to have a continuous measurement of the spin frequency and spin axis orientation during the entire flight of the ball.

Spin Frequency

Consider a Doppler radar 3 in FIG. 1. The Doppler radar comprises a transmitter 4 and a receiver 5. The transmitting wave 6 at frequency Ftx is reflected on the ball 1, the reflected wave 7 from the ball 1 has a different frequency Frx. The difference between the reflected frequency and the transmitted frequency, is called the Doppler shift F_(dopp). F_(dopp) is proportional to the relative speed Vrad of the reflecting point A on the ball 1 relative to the radar 3.

F _(dopp,A)=2/λ*Vrad   [1]

, where λ is the wavelength of the transmitting frequency.

A coordinate system 2 is defined as having origin in the center of the ball and X-axis always pointing directly away from the radar, the Z-axis is in the horizontal plane.

Vrad is the change in range from the Doppler radar 3 relative to time (Vrad=dR/dt). With the coordinate system 2 in FIG. 1, Vrad equals the X component of the velocity of the ball 1.

The strongest reflection from the ball 1 will always be the point A which is perpendicular to the line-of-sight from the radar. When the ball 1 is spinning, the point A with the strongest reflection will in fact be different physical locations on the ball over time.

The output signal of the Doppler receiver 5 from the reflection of point A on the ball can be written as:

x _(A)(t)=a(t)*exp(−j*F _(dopp,A) *t)   [2]

, where a(t) is the amplitude of the received signal.

Consider now the situation of a spinning ball 1 with an angular velocity of ω of the ball around the Z-axis. The reflection from a fixed point B on the ball 1, with a radius of r, will have a Doppler shift relative to the radar 1 of:

F _(dopp,B)=2/λ*(Vrad−r*ω*sin(ω*t))   [3]

The output signal of the receiver 5 from the reflection of point B on the ball can be written as:

x _(B)(t)=a(t)*d(t)*exp(−j*F _(dopp,B*t)))   [4]

, where d(t) is the relative amplitude of the received signal from point B relative to point A on the ball 1.

By substituting [2] and [3] in [4], one gets:

x _(B)(t)=x_(A)(t)*d(t)*exp(j*2/λ*r*ω*sin(ω*t)*t)   [5]

It is seen that the output signal from point B consist of the signal from point A modulated by a signal x_(modB)(t):

x _(modB)(t)=d(t)*exp(j*2/λ*r*ω*sin(ω*t)*t)   [6]

The exponential term of the modulating signal, is recognized as a frequency modulation (FM) signal, with a modulation frequency of ω/2π and a frequency deviation of 2/λ*r*ω.

From modulation theory it is well known that the spectrum of a sinusoid frequency modulation gives a spectrum with discrete frequency lines at the modulation frequency ω/2π and harmonics of this, the power of the spectrum lines of the m'th harmonic are equal to J_(m)(4π*r/λ), where J_(m)( ) is the Bessel function of first kind of m'th order.

The amplitude signal d(t) of the modulating signal in [6], will also have a time dependent variation. d(t) will like the exponential term in [6] also be periodic with the period T=2π/ω. Consequently will the spectrum from d(t) also have discrete spectrum lines equally spaced ω/2π. The relative strength of the individual harmonics of d(t) will depend on the reflection characteristics for the different aspect angles.

In summary, because of reflection from a physical point B on a spinning ball from other positions than when this point is closest to the radar (at point A), the received signal will have equally spaced sidebands symmetrical around the Doppler shift F_(dopp,A), caused by the velocity of the ball. The sidebands will have multiple harmonics and will be spaced exactly the spin frequency of the ball ω/2π. Only in the case of a perfect spherical ball, there will be no modulation sidebands.

On a normal sports ball there will be several areas on the ball that is not perfectly spherical. Each of these points will give discrete sidebands spaced the spin frequency. The total spectrum for all the scatters on the ball will then add up to the resulting received signal, that of course also has discrete sidebands spaced the spin frequency.

In the above the spin axis was assumed to be constant during time and parallel with the Z-axis. If the spin axis is rotated α around the Y-axis and then rotated β around the X-axis, it can easily be shown that the x-component of the velocity of point B equals:

Vx,B=cos α*r*ω*sin(ω*t)   [7]

Note that Vx,B is independent of the rotation β around the X-axis. Since Vx,B also is periodic with the period T=2π/ω, except for the special case of spin axis along the X-axis (α=90 deg), the corresponding Doppler shift from point B with rotated spin axis will also have discrete sidebands spaced exactly the spin frequency of the ball ω/2π. This means as long as the spin axis orientation changes slowly compared to the spin frequency, the spectrum of the received signal will contain discrete frequency sidebands spaced the spin frequency of the ball ω/2π.

In FIG. 2 the received signal spectrum of a golf ball in flight is shown. In FIG. 2 it is clearly seen that the spectrum contains a strong frequency line that corresponds to the velocity of the ball, as well as symmetric sidebands around this velocity that are equally spaced with the spin frequency.

First the ball velocity is tracked 8 using standard tracking methods. Then symmetrical frequency peaks around the ball velocity is detected 9. In FIG. 3 the frequency offset of the symmetrical sidebands are shown relative to the ball velocity. The different harmonics of the spin sidebands are tracked over time using standard tracking methods 10. The different tracks are qualified 11, requiring the different harmonic tracks to be equally spaced in frequency. The different tracks are solved for their corresponding harmonic number 12. After this, the spin frequency can be determined from any of the qualified harmonic tracks 13, provided that the frequency is divided by the respective harmonic number.

The final spin frequency chart over time is shown in FIG. 5, which contains all of the harmonic tracks.

The step-by-step procedure for measuring the spin frequency is described in FIG. 7.

Spin Axis Orientation

The 3 dimensional trajectory of the ball flight is obtained by appropriate instruments. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, the radar used for measuring the spin frequency is also used to provide a 3 dimensional trajectory of the ball flight, see FIG. 4,

Assuming that the ball is spherical rotational symmetric to a high degree, their will be three and only three forces acting on the ball. Referring to FIG. 8, the accelerations will be:

-   -   gravity acceleration, G     -   air resistance/drag acceleration, D     -   and lift acceleration, L

The total acceleration acting on a flying ball is consequently:

A=G+D+L   [8]

Examples of balls that satisfy the rotational symmetry criteria are: golf balls, tennis balls, base balls, cricket balls, soccer balls etc.

The drag is always 180 deg relative to the airspeed vector Vair. The lift acceleration L is caused by the spinning of the ball and is always in the direction given by ωxVair (x means vector cross product), i.e. 90 deg relative to the spin vector ω and 90 deg relative to the airspeed vector Vair. The spin vector ω describes the orientation of the spin axis, identified with the spin unity vector ωe, and the magnitude of the spin vector ω is the spin frequency ω found through the algorithm described in FIG. 7.

The airspeed vector is related to the trajectory velocity vector V by:

Vair=V−W   [9]

The procedure for calculating the orientation of the spin vector ω is described in FIG. 9.

From the measured 3 dimensional trajectory, the trajectory velocity V and acceleration A are calculated by differentiation 14.

The airspeed velocity is calculated 15 using equation [9], using a priori knowledge about the wind speed vector W.

The gravity acceleration G is calculated 16 from a priori knowledge about latitude and altitude.

Since drag and lift acceleration are perpendicular to each other, the magnitude and orientation of the drag acceleration D can be calculated 17 using equation [10].

D=[(A−G)•Vair/|Vair|² ]*Vair   [10]

, where • means vector dot product.

Hereafter the magnitude and orientation of the lift acceleration L can be easily found 18 from [11].

L=A−G−D   [11]

As mentioned earlier, by definition the lift vector L is perpendicular to the spin vector ω meaning that:

L•ωe=0   [12]

The spin unity vector we is normally assumed to be constant over time for rotational symmetrical objects due to the gyroscopic effect. If the spin unity vector ωe can be assumed to be constant over a time interval [t1;tn], then equation [12] constructs a set of linear equations [13].

where L(t)=[Lx(t), Ly(t), Lz(t)]and ωe=[ωex, ωey, ωex]

The linear equations in [13] can be solved for [ωex , ωey, ωez] by many standard mathematical methods. Hereby the 3 dimensional orientation of the spin axis in the time interval [t1,tn] can be determined. The only assumption is that the spin axis is quasi constant compared to the variation of the direction of the lift vector L.

By combining the spin frequency ω found from the algorithm described in FIG. 7 with the spin unity vector ωe found from equation [13], the spin vector ω can be found 20 by using equation [14].

ω=ω*ωe   [14]

Partwise Known Orientation of Spin Axis

In many cases it is known a priori that the spin axis lies in a known plane at a certain point in time. Let this plane be characterized by a normal unity vector n. This means:

n•=0   [15]

An example of such a case is the spin axis orientation right after launch of ball. When a ball is put into movement by means of a collision, like a golf ball struck by a golf club or a soccer ball hit by a foot, the spin vector ω will right after launch to a very high degree be perpendicular to the initial ball velocity vector V. The normal unity vector n in [15] will in this case be given by equation [16].

n=V/|V|  [16]

The procedure for calculating the orientation of the spin vector ω in the point in time t0 where the spin vector lays in a known plane characterized by the normal unity vector n is described in FIG. 10.

First following the exact same steps 14-18 as described in FIG. 9 to obtain the lift acceleration at the time t0.

Now determine 21 a rotation matrix R that converts the coordinates for the normal unity vector n in the base coordinate system to the x-axis unity vector [1,0,0], see equation [17]. The rotation matrix R can be found by standard algebraic methods from n.

[1,0,0]=R*n   [17]

The coordinates for the lift acceleration 1. from equation [11] is now rotated 22 through R represented by the Lm vector, see equation [18].

Lm=[Lxm, Lym, Lzm]=R*L   [18]

Similar coordinate transformation for the spin unity vector ωe, see equation [19].

ωem=[ωexm, ωeym, ωezm]=R*ωe   [19]

Since it known from equation [15] that ωexm equals 0, then equation [13] simplifies to equation [20].

Lym*ωeym+Lzm*ωezm=0   [20]

By using that the length of ωem equals 1, the spin unity vector ωe can be found 23 from either equation [21] or [22].

ωe=R ⁻¹*[0, −Lzm/Lym, 1]/|[0, −Lzm/Lym, 1]|, Lym≠0   [21]

ωe=R ⁻¹*[0, −Lym/Lzm]/|[0, 1,−Lym/Lzm]|, Lzm≠0   [22]

By combining the spin frequency ω found from the algorithm described in FIG. 7 with the spin unity vector ωe found from equation [21]-[22], the spin vector ω can be found 20 by using equation [14]. 

1-20. (canceled)
 21. A method for estimating a spin frequency of a rotating sports ball in flight, comprising: receiving, using a receiver of a radar arrangement, electromagnetic waves reflected from the rotating sports ball; deriving, without regard to any marking on the rotating sports ball, from the received electromagnetic waves, via the radar arrangement, a signal having a first frequency corresponding to a velocity of the rotating sports ball, the signal being modulated by a modulation frequency; and estimating, without regard to any marking on the rotating sports ball, via the radar arrangement, at least a single point in time, the spin frequency of the rotating sports ball based on at least one frequency distance between a harmonic of the modulation frequency and one of the first frequency and an additional harmonic of the modulation frequency.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the spin frequency is determined by dividing the frequency distance by one a harmonic number of the harmonic and a difference in harmonic number of the harmonics.
 23. The method of claim 21, further comprising the step of performing a frequency analysis comprising detecting a plurality of harmonics disposed symmetrically about the first frequency.
 24. The method of claim 21, wherein the spin frequency of the rotating sports ball is estimated based on the at least one frequency distance between the first frequency and each of the harmonic and the additional harmonic.
 25. The method of claim 21, wherein the harmonic and the additional harmonic comprise harmonics symmetric about the first frequency.
 26. The method of claim 21, wherein the first harmonic and the additional hail ionic comprise two adjacent harmonics.
 27. The method of claim 21, wherein the first frequency corresponds to the velocity of the rotating sports ball in a direction toward or away from the receiver.
 28. The method of claim 21, wherein the estimating step is repeated at least one additional point in time during the flight of the rotating sports ball.
 29. The method of claim 23, wherein the step of performing a frequency analysis comprises: identifying the first frequency as a 0th harmonic, the first frequency corresponding to the velocity of the rotating sports ball in a direction toward or away from the receiver, tracking a plurality of harmonics of the modulation frequency of the signal over time, qualifying the tracked plurality of harmonics by requiring that the tracked plurality of harmonics are equally spaced in frequency, and solving the qualified harmonics for their corresponding harmonic number, wherein the step of estimating comprises estimating, at least one point in time, the spin frequency from two of the qualified hat monies by dividing the frequency distance by a difference between respective corresponding harmonic numbers of the two qualified harmonics.
 30. A system for estimating a spin frequency of a rotating sports ball in flight, comprising: a receiver of a radar arrangement configured to, at least a single point in time, receive electromagnetic waves reflected from the rotating sports ball and provide a corresponding signal, which is modulated by a modulation frequency, wherein the radar arrangement is configured to perform, without regard to any marking on the rotating sports ball, a frequency analysis of the modulated signal and detect at least one harmonic of the modulation frequency, the radar arrangement being further configured to estimate, without regard to any marking on the rotating sports ball, the spin frequency from a frequency distance between the at least one harmonic and one of a first frequency corresponding to a velocity of the rotating sports ball and an additional harmonic of the modulation frequency.
 31. The system of claim 30, wherein the spin frequency is determined by dividing the frequency distance by one of a harmonic number of the harmonic and a difference in harmonic number of the harmonics.
 32. The system of claim 30, wherein the radar arrangement is further configured to identify, subsequent to the frequency analysis, the first frequency as a 0th harmonic, the first frequency corresponding to the velocity of the rotating sports ball in a direction toward or away from the receiver, track a plurality of harmonics of the modulation frequency of the signal over time, qualify the tracked plurality of harmonics by requiring that the tracked plurality of harmonics are equally spaced in frequency, solve the qualified harmonics for their corresponding harmonic number, and estimate the spin frequency from two of the qualified harmonics by dividing the frequency distance by a difference between respective corresponding harmonic numbers of the two qualified harmonics.
 33. A system for estimating a spin frequency of a rotating sports ball in flight, comprising: a radar arrangement configured to, at least a single point in time, receive electromagnetic waves reflected from a rotating sports ball and provide a corresponding signal, which is modulated by a modulation frequency, wherein the radar arrangement is configured to perform, without regard to any marking on the sports ball, a frequency analysis of the modulated signal and detect at least one harmonic of the modulation frequency, the radar arrangement being further configured to estimate the spin frequency from a frequency distance between the at least one harmonic and one or more of a first frequency corresponding to a velocity of the rotating sports ball and an additional harmonic of the modulation frequency.
 34. The system of claim 33, wherein the spin frequency is determined by dividing the frequency distance by a harmonic number of the harmonic in the first case or a difference in harmonic number of the harmonics in the second case.
 35. The system of claim 33, wherein the radar arrangement is further configured to identify, subsequent to the frequency analysis, the first frequency as a 0th harmonic, the first frequency corresponding to the velocity of the rotating sports ball in a direction toward or away from a receiver of the radar arrangement, track a plurality of harmonics of the modulation frequency of the signal over time, qualify the tracked plurality of harmonics by requiring that the tracked plurality of hat monies are equally spaced in frequency, solve the qualified harmonics for their corresponding harmonic number, and estimate the spin frequency from two of the qualified harmonics by dividing the frequency distance by a difference between respective corresponding harmonic numbers of the two qualified harmonics.
 36. The system of claim 33, wherein the at least one harmonic and the additional harmonic comprise two adjacent harmonics.
 37. The system of claim 33, wherein the at least one harmonic and the additional harmonic comprise harmonics symmetric about the first frequency.
 38. The system of claim 33, wherein the spin frequency of the rotating sports ball is estimated based on the frequency distance between the first frequency and each of the at least one harmonic and the additional harmonic.
 39. The system of claim 33, wherein the first frequency corresponds to the velocity of the rotating sports ball in a direction toward or away from a receiver of the radar arrangement.
 40. A system for estimating a spin frequency of a rotating sports ball in flight, comprising: a radar arrangement; and a computer-readable medium storing instructions which, when executed on the radar arrangement, cause the radar arrangement to perform operations comprising: receiving electromagnetic waves reflected from the rotating sports ball; deriving from the electromagnetic waves without regard to any marking on the sports ball, a signal having a first frequency corresponding to a velocity of the rotating sports ball, the signal being modulated by a modulation frequency; and estimating, at a point in time, the spin frequency of the rotating sports ball based on a frequency distance between a harmonic of the modulation frequency and one of the first frequency and an additional harmonic of the modulation frequency.
 41. The system of claim 40, wherein the spin frequency is determined by dividing the frequency distance by one of a harmonic number of the harmonic and a difference in harmonic number of the harmonics. 